The Future of the Globe
the future
The future of the planet is closely related to the future of the sun. For example, the steady accumulation of helium and other heavy elements in the sun's cavity results in a slow increase in overall sunlight. Research into climatic conditions suggests that high levels of radiation reaching the Earth could have serious consequences, including the potential loss of water bodies on the planet. Global warming accelerates the inorganic carbon dioxide cycle and reduces its concentration to levels that kill plants (10 parts per million - PPM - C4) within 900 million years. In addition, the absence of plants on the surface of the earth will lead to a lack of oxygen in the atmosphere, and thus the animals will become extinct within several million more years. But even if the sun is immortal and will not undergo any changes, the continuous cooling that occurs to the earth's cavity will lead to the loss of most of its atmosphere and oceans, due to the lack of volcanic activity. After another billion years, all water bodies will disappear, and the minimum temperature of the universe will reach 70 degrees Celsius. The Earth is expected to become viable for another 500 million years.
Scientists say the sun will become a giant red star, as part of its evolution, within 5 billion years. Studies have shown that the Sun will expand its size by about 250 times its current radius, roughly the equivalent of about one astronomical unit (150,000,000 km), meaning that its radius will overlook the Earth, but by then life on Earth will be over. Hundreds of millions of years, because life on Earth does not withstand a much higher temperature of bicycles than it does today. Since the sun will become a giant red star, it will lose almost 30% of its mass, so without tidal effects, the Earth will move to an orbit located 1.7 astronomical units (250,000,000 kilometers) from the sun when the star reaches its maximum radius . Consequently, it is expected that the Earth will escape the surrounding atmosphere due to the expansion of the non-dense outer atmosphere surrounding the sun. Most, if not all, aspects of life remaining on Earth will be destroyed by increased sunlight. A more recent study suggests that Earth's orbit will perish due to the tidal effects on Earth, leading to its entry into the atmosphere of the giant red star and its destruction.
The composition and composition of the planet
Earth is a terrestrial planet, which means it is a rocky object, not a giant gas object like Jupiter. It is also the largest of the four terrestrial planets in the solar system, in size and mass. In addition, among these four planets, Earth also has the highest density, the highest level of gravity on its surface, the strongest magnetic field and the fastest rotation.
In addition, it is the only planet with active tectonic plates.
The shape of the planet
The shape of the planet is very close to the flat sphere, it is a flat sphere at the poles, dented at the equator. This drain results in the rotation of the planet and causes the Earth's diameter at the equator to be 43 kilometers larger than the poles. The average diameter of the spherical reference object is about 12,742 km, which is approximately 40,000 km / TT; the meter was originally equal to 1 / 10,000,000 of the distance from the equator to the North Pole through Paris in France.
The local topography is different from this ideal spherical shape, although these differences are small on a cosmic scale: Earth has an average variation of about a fraction of 584, or 0.17% of the reference sphere, less than 0.22% of the variation. Allowable between billiard balls. The largest local variations are the rocky surface of the planet at Everest (8,848 meters above sea level) and the Mariana Depression (10,911 meters below sea level). Because the Earth is dented at the equator, Mount Chimborazo, located in Ecuador, is the farthest part of Earth's center.
Chemical composition of the planet
The mass of the planet weighs approximately 5.98 x 1024 kilograms, most of which are iron (32.1%), oxygen (30.1%), silicon (15.1%), magnesium (13.9%), sulfur (2.9%), nickel (1.8%), calcium (1.5%) and aluminum. (1.4%) and the remaining 1.2% consist of small amounts of other elements. Since the heavier elements are attracted to the center while the lighter elements are located towards the center in what is known as "separation of stars" or "redistribution of stars", some believe that iron is the main component of the Earth's core, where it amounts to 88.8%, With a small amount of 5.8% nickel, 4.5% sulfur and less than 1% of other elements, geochemist Frank Weigsworth-Clark explained that more than 47% of the earth's crust is composed of oxygen. All of the most common rock constituents that make up the earth's crust are almost oxides, but chlorine, sulfur and fluorine are only important exceptions, and the total amount in any rock is usually less than 1%. Basic oxides include silica, alumina, iron oxides, lime, magnesia, potash and soda. Silica acts primarily as an acid and contributes to the formation of silicates, and all the mineral elements common in volcanic rocks have these properties as well. Clarke, from a statistic based on 1,6729 analytical studies of all rock types, has concluded that 99.22% of these rocks are oxides, while other elements are found in very small amounts.
The internal structure of the earth
Like other planets, the interior of the planet is divided into several layers, according to chemical or rheological characteristics - the science of the states of matter and what happens in terms of viscosity, expansion and plasticization by the influence of external physical factors. Looking at the outer layer of the planet from the chemical point of view, it is noted that it is a relatively thin hard shell, a thickness of about 50 km, characterized by its composition of relatively light metals, mostly silicate. The light crust, which contains continents, oceans and seas, floats above the Earth's atmosphere, which is denser than the surface material and consists of a high-viscosity solid. The Moho interruption - a seismic disconnect that separates the Earth's crust from the mantle beneath it, and evidenced by the time-slope curves showing the seismic waves to a sudden increase in speed - separates the crust from the mantle. The average thickness under water bodies is 6 kilometers and ranges between 30 and 50 kilometers on continents. Both the earth's crust and the surface part of the cold and hard upper mantle are called "rock cover" or "stone cover," which forms the tectonic plates. At the bottom of the lithosphere lies the flow range (the upper mantle part below the rigid rock band, which is so pliable that it allows rockflow) that serves as a relatively low viscosity layer upon which the lithosphere is based. Significant changes have occurred in the crystalline structure within the ground mantle 410 to 660 kilometers below the surface of the earth, a distance that represents a transitional range separating the upper ground mantle from the lower ground mantle. Below the ground mantle, there is a liquid outer core with very low viscosity above the solid inner core. The inner core may rotate at an angle at a faster rate (the rate of angular displacement) than the rest of the planet, and its temperature increases by 0.1 to 0.5 degrees Celsius each year.
Earth's heat
The internal heat of the planet results from heat from the planetary motion (approximately 20%) and heat from radioactive decay (approximately 80%). Potassium-40, uranium-238, uranium-235 and thorium-232 are the main radioactive isotopes on the planet, and heat in the center of the Earth may exceed 7,000 kelvins, with pressure up to 360 gpa. Because most of the Earth's heat is caused by radioactive decay, scientists thought that in the early periods of Earth's history and before the isotopes of short half-lives ran out, the heat produced by Earth was much higher than it is now.
The total heat lost by the Earth is estimated at 4.2 x 1013 watts. Part of the Earth's thermal energy moves in the direction of the Earth's crust by magma rising from the ground mantle, a type of load consisting of a very high temperature rock. Rising magma can lead to overheating in some areas and a flow of basalt (volcanic stones) to the surface. The Earth loses its heat through plate tectonics by the burst of the land mantle - accompanied by the formation of chains of mountains and hills in the middle of the oceans. The last major factor in global warming is the transfer of thermal energy through the lithosphere - most of which occurs in the oceans because the earth's crust is thinner in water bodies than in the continental surface.
Tectonic plates
The Earth's hard outer layer, known as the "rocky sheath" or "lysosphere," is divided into parts called tectonic plates. These tectonic plates are solid parts that move together with three types of movement: convergent motion; two tectonic plates move together; and spaced motion; Laterally. Earthquakes, volcanoes, mountain formation and ocean canyons can occur alongside tectonic plates as they move in one of the three movements mentioned above. The tectonic plates are based on the upper part of the flow range - the part that is solid, but has a low viscosity ratio, from the upper ground mantle, and can flow with these tectonic plates.
The movement of these panels is also closely related to the convection patterns that occur within the ground mantle.
As these tectonic plates move or budge on the surface of the planet, the ocean floor is subduction (a process responsible for falling one mass of the earth's crust under another) beneath the main edges of these plates at close edges. At the same time, the escalation of materials in the terrestrial mantle at the far boundary leads to the formation of mountain ranges in the middle of the oceans. The occurrence of these processes together recycles the ocean bottom crust in the ground mantle. By taking these processes together, changes in the crust of the bottom of the water bodies always occur, making them return to their original shape in the ground mantle. It is worth noting that the oldest part of the crust of the ocean beds is located in the western Pacific Ocean, and is estimated to be about 200 million years old.
Compared to the oldest part of the Earth's crust, the oldest part dates back to about 4,030 million years. Other plates on the planet's surface include: Indian, Arabian, Caribbean and Nazaka, located on the southern coast of Peru, far from Peru. The west coast of South America, waved ascotia which is located in the South Atlantic. The Australian board merged with the Indian board 50 or 55 million years ago. Ocean plates are the fastest moving plates; they move the Cocos at a rate of 75 millimeters per year, while the Pacific Ocean moves at a rate of 52 to 69 millimeters per year; on the other hand, the slowest is the Eurasian; Its speed increases at a constant rate of 21 millimeters per year.
The surface of the planet
The terrain varies greatly from place to place,
For example, about 70.8% of the Earth's surface is covered with water. A large portion of the continental shelf (known as the shallow water area characterized by its gradual sloping from the shore towards the sea) is below sea level. In addition, the submerged surface in the middle of the ocean floor has mountainous features, including mountain ranges and hills in the middle of the oceans, and contains volcanoes, ocean gullies, undersea valleys, plateaus and deep plains. The remaining undeveloped part, comprising 29.2% of the Earth's surface, consists of mountains, deserts, plains, plateaus and other terrain features.
The surface of the planet has undergone a reconfiguration process over the geological ages, due to tectonic effects and erosion. And thermal cycles and chemical effects. In addition, ice precipitation, coastal erosion, the formation of coral reef chains, and the effects of meteorites falling on Earth also contribute to reshaping the planet's surface.
The continental crust consists of low density materials such as: igneous rocks such as granite and andesite. There are also largely unknown rocks such as basalt, one of the most dense volcanic rocks that are the main component of ocean beds. There are also sedimentary rocks formed from sediments that were pressed together. Approximately 75% of the Earth's surface is covered by sedimentary rocks, although it accounts for only about 5% of the Earth's crust. The third type of rock found on the Earth's surface is metamorphic rock, formed by the transformation of other rock types by pressure, high temperatures, or both. Quartz, feldspar, amphibole, mica, pyroxene and olivine are among the most abundant silicate minerals on Earth. Carbonate minerals include calcite (which is found in lime stones), aragonite and dolomite. The last outermost layer of the planet is the bosposphere. This layer is found in the interface of the lysosphere, the pH and the biosphere. It is worth mentioning that currently arable land represents 13.31% of the total land of the planet and provides only 4.71% of permanent crops. Approximately 40% of the land surface is currently used as agricultural land and pasture, or an estimated 1.3 × 107 square kilometers as agricultural land and 3.4 × 107 square kilometers as pasture. The height of the Earth's surface varies from place to place. Some studies conducted in 2005 showed that the lowest is the Dead Sea (-418 meters), the highest being Mount Everest (8,848 meters). The average elevation of the Earth's surface above sea level is 840 meters.
Water cover
The availability of large amounts of water on the Earth's surface is a unique feature that distinguishes the "blue planet" from other planets in the solar system. The Earth's hydrosphere is mainly composed of oceans, but technically, it includes all the world's water bodies including inland seas, lakes, rivers and groundwater at a depth of 2,000 meters. The Challenger Valley in the Pacific Ocean, specifically the Mariana low, with a depth of -10,911.4 meters, is the deepest site on Earth. The average ocean depth is 3,800 meters, four times the average elevation on the continental surface. The ocean mass is estimated at 1.35 x 1018 metric tons, or about 1/4400 of the Earth's total mass, and the oceans occupy 361.8 x 106 2 km. It should be noted that if all the land on the surface of the earth is evenly spread, the water level will reach a height of more than 2.7 kilometers. About 3.5% of the total ocean mass consists of salt. Most of these salts were formed by volcanic activity or were extracted from cold volcanic rocks. The oceans are a reservoir of dissolved gases in the atmosphere that are essential for the survival of many aquatic organisms. In addition, seawater has a significant impact on the global climate, as it and the oceans act as large reservoirs of heat. Changes in the distribution of temperature in the oceans can also have a significant impact on climate changes on the sea, such as the Southern Oscillation (Al Nino) phenomenon.
Atmosphere
The average atmospheric pressure on the Earth's surface is 101.325 kPa, at a step height of 8.5 kilometers. The atmosphere consists of 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen, in addition to trace amounts of water vapor, carbon dioxide and other gaseous particles. The height of the troposphere varies according to latitude, ranging from 8 kilometers at the poles to 17 kilometers at the equator, with some variations due to weather and seasonal factors. Its atmosphere, where oxygen-based photosynthesis began 2.7 billion years ago - creating the atmosphere, which is made up of oxygen and nitrogen. This change has led to the proliferation of air-breathing organisms, and the ozone layer, which together with the planet's magnetic field, blocks the sun's ultraviolet rays, allowing life on Earth. Other important functions of the atmosphere include transporting water vapor, providing useful gases, helping to burn meteors before hitting the surface and adjusting temperature. The latter phenomenon is known as the "greenhouse effect". The tiny particles in the atmosphere help trap the heat energy emitted by the Earth - leading to higher average surface temperatures. It is worth mentioning that carbon dioxide, water vapor, methane and ozone are greenhouse raids. Without the greenhouse effect, the average temperature on the Earth's surface will reach -18 degrees Celsius.
Weather and climate on Earth
There are no known boundaries of the Earth's atmosphere, as it gradually becomes thicker and fades into outer space. Three-quarters of the mass of the atmosphere is located in the first 11 kilometers of the planet's surface. The lowest layer is known as the troposphere. The energy emitted by the sun heats this layer and the surface beneath it, which expands the air, then the low-density hot air rises up and is replaced by more intense cold air. The result is atmospheric air circulation that directs weather and climate through the redistribution of thermal energy. The basic spinning belts in the atmosphere consist of commercial winds blowing over the equatorial region below 30 ° latitude and western winds blowing at medium latitudes between 30 ° and 60 °. Ocean currents are also key factors in determining climate, particularly the movement of deep-ocean water that contributes to the distribution of thermal energy from oceans at the equator to the polar regions. When weather permits warm, humid air to rise, the water in the air condenses, and then falls to the surface again in the form of rain and snow. Thus, most of the evaporated water returns back to low-lying areas of the earth by rivers, which usually return to the oceans or collect in lakes. The water cycle is a vital mechanism that supports the existence of life on Earth and is a primary factor that erodes the terrain on Earth over geological periods. Rainfall varies from several meters of water per year to less than a millimeter. Atmospheric air circulation, topographic features and different temperatures contribute to determining the average amount of rainfall falling on each region. For example, belts from the equator to the polar regions can be divided into tropical, subtropical, temperate and polar regions. Climate can also be classified according to temperatures and precipitation amounts, as well as climatic regions according to regular air masses. The Köppen climate classification system (as modified by Waldemann Kopen, a student of Rudolf Geyer) consists of five large groups: wet and dry tropical and humid regions, located mid-latitudes, continental and cold polar regions, which were subsequently divided To more specific areas.
Upper atmosphere
The atmosphere above the troposphere is usually divided into the stratosphere (upper atmosphere, mesosphere (middle atmosphere) and thermosphere (thermal atmosphere), and each of the aforementioned layers has a difference in low temperature - which shows the extent of temperature change according to The exosphere (the last layer of the atmosphere) fades behind these layers in the magneticosphere, where this is where the magnetic field interacts with the solar wind.The ozone layer is an important part of the atmosphere to sustain life on the planet's surface. This layer is a component of the stratosphere that partially protects the Earth's surface from ultraviolet rays, and the Carman Line is called the 100-kilometer-long area above Earth, which separates the atmosphere from space. Because there is thermal energy on the planet, some of the molecules on the outer edge of the planet's atmosphere are so fast that they escape the planet's gravitational range, and this causes a slow, if ever, escape from the atmosphere into space. Because hydrogen is light and of low molecular weight, its escape velocity in space is greater, and its escape rate is greater than that of other gases. The leakage of hydrogen gas in outer space is one of the factors contributing to the change of the Earth's status from the initial reduction state to the current oxidation state. Photosynthesis is a source of free oxygen, but some believe that the loss of reducing agents such as hydrogen gas is a necessary precondition for the large-scale accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere. Thus, the ability of hydrogen gas to escape the planet's atmosphere may have affected the nature of life on the planet. Today, with the oxygen-rich atmosphere, most of the hydrogen gas turns into water before it has the chance to escape from the atmosphere into outer space. But most of the loss of hydrogen is due to the destruction of methane in the upper atmosphere.
the magnetic field
Earth magnetism is formed in the form of an almost bipolar magnetic field, with the poles of the magnetic field currently converging from the planet's two poles. According to the theory of dynamo, the planet's magnetic field generates inside the outer core of the molten core. The heat in this space leads to thermal load movements of the heat conducting material, generating electric currents. This in turn generates the magnetic field of the planet. The convection movements in the Earth's core are of a random nature and periodically change in alignment. This in turn leads to reflections in the magnetic field at irregular intervals that occur on average a few times per million years. The last reflection in the magnetic field occurred nearly 700,000 years ago. The Earth's magnetosphere forms its magnetic envelope, which helps deflect fine particles in the solar wind from the planet. The sun-facing edge of the boundary between the magnetosphere and the ocean is 13 times the radius of the planet. The collision between the Earth's magnetic field and solar winds also results in so-called Van Allen radiation belts, two concentric zones and round areas with protrusions with tiny particles charged with energy. When plasma (high ionization gases) enters magnetic poles, auroras are formed.
Orbit and rotation of the planet
Rotation
The Earth's rotation on its axis relative to the Sun - the average solar day - is estimated to be 86,400 seconds of mean solar time. It is worth noting that each of these seconds is slightly longer than the second in the international system of units, because the solar day is now slightly longer than the solar day during the nineteenth century, due to the acceleration of the tide movement. The period of rotation of the Earth around its axis according to the fixed stars, which the body called the average star day. It is estimated at 86164.098903691 seconds of mean solar time (UT1) or (23h 56d 4.09053083288s). The Earth's rotation period according to the average and advanced vernal equinoxes, which some mistakenly call "astral day" or "astronomical", is estimated at 86,164.09053083288 seconds of mean solar time (23 h 56 d 4.09053083288 s). The astronomical day is thus 8.4 milliseconds shorter than the stellar day. The length of the average solar day can be determined from the periods between 1623-2005 and 1962-2005. By referring to the Global Earth Circulation Meteorological Authority.
Apart from meteors entering the atmosphere and satellite moons orbiting at low orbits, the main apparent movements of celestial bodies in the planet's sky occur westward at a rate of 5 ° / h = 15 '/ d. This ratio is equal to the actual diameter of the Sun or Moon, which is calculated every two minutes; the apparent size of the Sun and Moon is approximately equal.
Orbit
The planet orbits the Sun at a distance of approximately 150 million kilometers every 365.2564 average solar days or astronomical years, which makes the sun look to the viewer from the Earth, moving east for stars at a rate of 1 ° / day or the diameter of the sun or the moon every 12 hours. Because of this movement, on average, it takes the Earth 24 hours - the equivalent of a solar day - to cycle around its axis until the sun returns to the meridian circle. The average orbital velocity of the planet is estimated at 30 km / s (108,000 km / h), which is sufficient to cover the distance of the planet (about 12,600 km) in seven minutes and the distance to the moon (384,000 km) in four hours. With the Earth around the center of mass every 27.32 days, according to the stars in the background. When the above is added to the rotation of the Earth and the Moon around the Sun, the lunar month (the period between the formation of two moons) is about 29.53 days. Observing the Earth from the celestial North Pole, the movement of the Earth and the Moon and their axial rotation are all counterclockwise. If you look at it from a better point above the north poles of the sun and moon, the earth will look like it orbits the sun counterclockwise. The orbital and pivotal levels are not quite straight; the Earth's axis is tilted 23.5 degrees from its perpendicular to the Earth and the Sun. The Earth and Moon are inclined about 5 degrees away from the Earth and the Sun. Without this tendency, there will be an eclipse and an eclipse every two weeks, alternating between the lunar eclipse and the solar eclipse. The radius of the Earth's gravitational influence is estimated at 1.5 gigameters (1,500,000 km). This is the maximum distance at which Earth's gravitational effect is stronger than the Sun and the farthest planets. Objects must orbit the Earth in this radius, or become uncontrolled due to the gravitational disruption of the sun.
The Earth and the solar system are located in the Milky Way galaxy, orbiting 28,000 light years from the center of the galaxy. Earth is currently 20 light years above the galactic plane on the spiral's mighty arm.
Seasons and the tendency of the Earth's axis
Due to the tilt of the Earth's axis, the amount of sunlight that reaches any point on the Earth's surface varies over the months of the year; summer in the Northern Hemisphere comes when the Arctic is heading towards the sun, and winter is when the pole is moving away from the Sun. During the summer, the day lasts longer and the sun is higher in the sky, while in winter the climate becomes colder in general and the day becomes shorter. Above the Arctic Circle, the situation becomes extreme. The sun does not shine at all - polar night falls for six months. In the southern hemisphere, the situation is completely reversed; the South Pole is in a direction opposite to the North Pole.
According to astronomical rules, the four seasons are determined by inversions (a point in orbit of the maximum axial inclination towards or away from the sun) as well as equinoxes when the inclination and orientation of the sun is perpendicular. It is worth mentioning that the winter solstice occurs on December 21 and the summer solstice occurs around June 21, the spring equinox occurs around March 20, while autumn equinox occurs on September 23. The angle of inclination of the Earth is relatively constant over long periods of time. However, the axis is also subject to ataxia (tremor or irregular movements occurring in the Earth's axis by the sun and moon) every 18.6 years. The direction of the Earth's axis (not the angle) also changes over time, moving in the form of a circle to make a full cycle every 25,800 annual cycles. These movements occur because of the different attraction of the sun and the moon at the dent in the Earth's equator. If you look at the poles from the ground, you notice that the poles also shift a few meters on the ground. This polar movement consists of many cyclical components, all of which are called quasi-cyclic motion. In addition to the annual component of this movement, there is a cycle that occurs every 14 months known as "Chandler ataxia", a movement that rotates the axis of the Earth and lasts about 14 months. The Earth's rotation speed varies, resulting in a phenomenon known as the length of daylight. At the moment, the perihelion (the closest point in the planet's orbit or any other celestial body to the Sun) of the planet occurs around The point where the planet is far from the sun) on 4 July. But these dates change over time, due to advanced motion and other orbital factors that follow periodic patterns known as "Milankovic cycles." The change in the distance between the planet and the sun results in an increase of about 6.9% of the solar energy that reaches the Earth in the perihelion phase, compared with the thermal energy that reaches the planet when it is in the apogee, the farthest point possible from the sun. Since the southern part of the Earth tends toward the Sun at about the same time as the Earth reaches the closest possible point to the Sun, the southern hemisphere receives more solar energy than the northern hemisphere receives throughout the year. But the effect is less significant than the total energy change caused by the Earth's axis of inclination, and excess energy is absorbed by the high proportion of water in the southern hemisphere.
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