Syria since its establishment until now
Syria or Syria, or (officially: the Syrian Arab Republic) since 1961, is an Arab state that is a central republic, consisting of 14 provinces, with its capital and largest city is Damascus. Located within the Middle East region in Western Asia; bordered to the north of Turkey, east of Iraq, south of Jordan, west of Palestine, Lebanon, and the Mediterranean Sea, with an area of 185,180 square kilometers, terrain and vegetation and animal cover diverse, and a climate ranging between the Mediterranean, semi-arid. Syria is classified alongside Iraq as the oldest cradle of human civilization [citation needed] and derived its name according to the most academic theories of Assyria; however, Syria's historical region is different from the modern Syrian state in terms of extension and area, and the first refers to the Levant, or Crescent Fertile.
Human remains have been found in Syria for thousands of years, and the city of Damascus is considered the oldest city in the world, and the country contains many human settlements extended since the Stone Age, the country flourished in ancient times to fertile soil, and as a road to commercial convoys or armies, and built strong successive empires, most of which included The entire Fertile Crescent has emerged since the eleventh century BC Aramaic civilization, which continued the country's basic civilizational identity until the majority of Arabization by the eleventh century AD. In the Antioch period, the country was part of the Seleucid Empire - notably the Seleucid kings themselves were the king of Syria - and then the Roman and Byzantine Empire; The Abbasid state A number of Emirates and influential states, followed by the establishment of Ottoman Syria, which lasted until the First World War. After the war, Syria's independence was declared on March 8, 1920 by the General Syrian Congress, but France refused to recognize the conference, and in September 1920 it issued partition decrees, and gradually until 1936 five entities within the Syrian Republic, which gained full independence in 1946, were reunited to end. The short period of parliamentary democracy, interrupted by many crises, in 1963 with the establishment of a one-party, socialist system. The Syrian crisis, which led to widespread destruction in the country, erupted in 2011 and was described as the greatest disaster of modern times. The current constitution was promulgated in 2012.
The Syrian people, who are developing, are ethnically, linguistically and religiously diverse, and Arab-Syrian Arabs make up the majority of the Sunnis by 63% of the total population; there are many cultural features of the people as a whole. The most important cities with a population of more than two million, Aleppo, and Damascus; the current population of 22.5 million people, and has been active migration since the nineteenth century and there are huge communities of Syrians abroad. Syria is a developing country, with a weak economy, an average income level, and widespread corruption.The economy was socialist and did not begin to reform and gradually abandon it until after 2000; basically the economy depends on agriculture, tourism and services, with underground wealth, Some are not yet invested.
The official writing of the name of Syria is Syria, and this is due to the influence in the Ottoman Turkish, which used the Arabic alphabet, and wrote the names of the flag with the bound T, but in Arabic, the rule must draw the names of the lexicons, as well as the names of the trilateral names preceded by a thousand long. The country was called in the name of Syria during the Seleucid period in the 3rd century BC, although none of the ancient Arabic literature mentioned this name, and the first to be addressed by the lexicon of the countries was Yakut al-Hamwi; in Greek literature, Herod and Homerus called the country Syria.
The explanations given for the meaning of the name are several, most notably:
It is named after the Assyrian Empire which established a vast civilization and culture in the Fertile Crescent, with the replacement of the letter Shin by Sen, which is common in Semitic languages. Theodore Nöldeke was the first to suggest a relationship between the two names. This hypothesis has received a wide spread among researchers, especially after the discovery of inscriptions written in both the Levitic and Phoenician languages in Cilicia, where Phoenician refers to the word Assyria, while the libya mentioned Syria in the same passage.
It is named after the pictures on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea, and the Greeks knew this name as a result of the flourishing trade relations between the two parties.
As for the Arabs called the country is the Levant, and this term is still used to refer to the Levant as it is used in the dialects spoken in Syria to refer to the city of Damascus, has been theorized multiple theories about the origin of the designation of Sham also highlighted:
Sham is attributed to Sam ibn Noah, as the ancient language of the country, Aramaic, was attributed to his son Aram, with the replacement of the letter Sin by Shin, which is common in Semitic languages.
The Levant in Arabic means the left and therefore from the geographic location of the Hejaz, Yemen is named after the right and the Levant relative to the left, also known as the North.
The human effects in the region that make up Syria today date back about 750,000 BC, including Australopithecus, Neanderthal, and Homo sapiens about 150,000 years ago. The stability of the land, the work in agriculture goes back to about 12,000 BC, and the establishment of numerous human settlements - 700 Stone Age settlements, some of which continue to this day, as populated areas such as Damascus and Aleppo - makes the country along with Iraq the most prominent cradle of human civilization . [24] The civilization complexity has been reflected since the third millennium BC, with prosperous kingdoms, such as Yemdah, and the Kingdom of Mary on the Euphrates, which extended to Aleppo, both within the Amorite civilization, the Kingdom of Ebla, embedded in the present province of Idlib, and the Kingdom of Ugarit on the coast, along with less important kingdoms such as Kingdom of Cana. In the middle of the third millennium BC, the great empires of the Fertile Crescent emerged on the basis of administrative decentralization, beginning with Sargon of the Akkad. The Babylonian Empire collapsed in the 16th century. The later centuries until the eleventh century were known as the "dark centuries", in which Syria was ruled by an Indo-European empire, including a cattle, a Hittite, or even an ancient Egyptian. With the demise of these empires, the Aramaic civilization of the eleventh century BC emerged in the form of cities - states such as the Kingdom of Bakhyani, the Aram of Damascus and others. In the 9th century BC, the third monotheist of the fertile crescent of Shalmaneser III appeared in the Assyrian Empire, and his successor Nebuchadnezzar was able to maintain the unity of the country within the Chaldean Empire until 531 BC when Syria and the Seleucid conquest became a Persian satrap. In all these periods, various types of literature, social values, arts, and trade developed with Asia Minor, Armenia, Egypt, Persia, and Maritime across the Mediterranean; architecture, science, especially engineering and astronomy. Aramaic civilization in particular, continued after the fall of the kingdoms Aramean countries, in the form of cultural identity and language of Syria with the Phoenician differentiation in the coast
Alexander the Great conquered the Fertile Crescent in 333 BC, and his empire disintegrated after his death. Transferred to Damascus during the conquest. The Seleucids left significant urban monuments, constructed 34 cities, took care of trade, and spread Hellenistic culture in the country, particularly in cities and commercial centers. This era was troubled by a series of Syrian wars between the Seleucids and the Ptolemaic rulers of Egypt, which ended in 198 BC, annexing southern Syria to the kingdom, excluding Egyptian influence from it;
In the 1st century BC, the Seleucids weakened and their state was disintegrated.Decran, the king of Armenia, conquered parts of the country in 69 BC, and shortly afterwards, the Romans conquered Syria in 64 BC under the leadership of Pompeus the Great, and the region was called the "Roman State of Syria". , Which was later divided into smaller states, including the Arab state, its center of Bosra, and Happy Syria, centered on Apamea. The Syrians interacted with the Roman conquest, and the Seferian family descended from the city of Homs managed to bring out five Rome emperors during their control of the throne between 192 and 236, along with Philip the Arab between 244 and 249. The Kingdom of Homs and the self-governing Palmyra Empire, which revolted over Rome and gained wide political and economic influence during the reign of King Uthina and his wife, Zenobia, were destroyed by the Romans in 272. These historical events coincided with the spread of Christianity in the country since its first century. Excavations and archaeological excavations, which left traces on language, literature and philosophy, indicate that the Council of Nicea recognized the bishop of Antioch as a forerunner of the Christian world.
Syria emerged during the fourth and fifth centuries as an important commercial crossing consisting of the Silk Road, which began in China and ends near Antioch, and developed the Aramaic language and derived from the Syriac language, which became the language of Syria daily, and emerged science and literature represented schools and universities, most notably in Edessa and Nusaybin and Harran and others, and marred the sixth century Sectarian persecutions and the collapse of the economic situation as a result of tax increases and the outbreak of wars between the Byzantine Empire and the Sassanid Empire, which enabled the Persians to enter the country. The second ball in 613 destroyed Damascus and killed most of its population, and then recaptured Syria Hercules Syria counter-attack in 628.
Most of the Syrian cities opened a ladder in 636 days under the succession of Omar ibn al-Khattab and under the leadership of Abu Ubaida ibn al-Jarrah. Shortly after the conquest, Syria was one of the strongholds of the first civil war in Islam, which ended in 661 with the establishment of the Umayyad state and the transfer of the capital of the caliphate to Damascus. The Umayyads ruled Syria for 132 years, during which the country flourished and its economy and intellectual movement flourished, as illustrated by the writings of historians and the remaining architectural monuments. The Abbasid revolution of 749 was a scourge for the country, especially Damascus as the capital of the former state.In contrast, the attention of the Abbasid caliphs emerged during the height of state power in the Euphrates valley and the eastern region in particular, and a number of caliphs, pimps and princes settled for comfort and 'good looks'. During the weakness of the Abbasid state, Syria was followed by many dynasties that established semi-independent states within the Abbasid state. The country flourished during the reign of some of them, such as the Hamdanids. Fatimidism is a time. With the Seljuks weakened, the state disintegrated into independent emirates, in various cities and regions that soon fought in civil wars, with the neglect of the economy and the proliferation of natural disasters.This did not prevent the country from being home to poets, philosophers, jurists, travelers, and migrations. In the late 11th century the First Crusade was able to establish kingdoms on the Syrian coast, and the Second Crusade besieged Damascus, but failed to enter. The Zinkists were able to unite the north of the country, and then succeeded Saladin, who succeeded them, to unite Egypt and the Levant in one Sultanate and regain Jerusalem, but his battles with the Principles of Antioch and Tripoli were limited to hit and run, leaving the Mamluks who succeeded the Ayyubids to complete control of the Levant. The expulsion of the Crusaders from Antioch in 1268 and Tripoli in 1285; however, Damascus and Aleppo in the same period were burned and destroyed as a result of the Mongol invasions led by Hulagu, whom the Mamluks were able to expel after the Battle of Ain Jalut, followed by a century of destruction with other cities for a second time as a result of the Tamerlane invasions in 1400. 1401; D. Mamluk represents negligence, the spread of famines and epidemics, the collapse of the economy, the frequent military coups, and revolutions of the Mamluks deputies in Syrian cities, and the spread of illiteracy, until the population fell to one-third of their rule, which lasted for nearly three centuries; With special care they regarded it as the "second capital" after Cairo.
The period of Ottoman rule over Syria spanned four centuries since Sultan Selim I crushed the Mamluk army in the battle of Marj Dabiq north of Aleppo on August 24, 1516, including the king of the country's peaceful cities, headed by Damascus on 26 September 1516, and until the Ottomans withdrew from it in the wake of the Great Arab Revolution. World War I in October 1918. At the beginning of their reign, the Ottomans kept the Levant within one administrative division, and even with the complexity of the administrative division, the states and states continued to include geographical areas that are today mostly belonging to the various countries of the Levant, namely Syria, Lebanon, Palestine and Jordan. Annexed by Turkey to pay Yen, the three states and three Almtsrviac were invited in the nineteenth century, "Ottoman States, the Syrian."
During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Damascus and Aleppo witnessed an economic and population prosperity, contributed by the fact that the pilgrimage convoys meet in Damascus to go to the Hejaz, and most of the land trade convoys towards the Gulf, Persia, and Iraq pass from Aleppo; Well, but the era of chaos and wars between the governors prevailed at the time, as well as the tendencies of independence such as Zahir al-Omar and Ahmed Pasha al-Jazzar and Fakhr al-Din II concerned; and for many centuries, especially in the countryside Illiterate The most prominent feature of the Ottoman era. In 1831 the country entered the reign of Muhammad Ali Pasha, and his rule was a reformist rule in terms of administration, economy and education, but the policy of forced recruitment, which led to the restless Syrians from his rule, and the succession of popular revolutions against him between 1833 and 1837, and was able Sultan The glorious first military support of Tsarist Russia, Britain and Austria restored Syria in 1840.
During the last phase of Ottoman rule from 1840 until the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the country flourished and its economic potential grew rapidly and experienced a cultural and political prosperity in major cities and some medium cities such as Homs, forming one of the wings of the Arab Renaissance. Newspapers, national and foreign schools, universities, and national political and scientific societies are among the most prominent; however, the Renaissance period has been confined to large or medium-sized cities and has not reached the countryside, which has been largely neglected and dominated by feudalism. Despite the demise of the Ottoman rule, its architectural monuments still exist in major cities, especially palaces, baths, mosques, khans and markets, and a number of customs, linguistic vocabulary and Turkish cuisine have become part of the heritage and culture of the Syrian people.
The Arab renaissance led to the demand for administrative reforms of the Ottoman state, often met with procrastination and rejection by the state, which created a divergent Maha, which exacerbated after the famine of 1915, and the policy of Jamal Pasha the serial killer, waves of migration to the new world, and forced recruitment during the First World War, which led to the launch The Great Arab Revolt of 1916, which, together with teams of Allied forces, entered Syria at the end of September 1918. In the following world the General Syrian Congress, the first contemporary Syrian parliament, convened and declared independence and the establishment of the Syrian Arab Republic in 1920, but the Allies refused to recognize the new entity, And she did France dissolved after the Battle of Maysaloun in July 1920, beginning the French Mandate phase, with the issuance of the decrees of the division of the territory of the Kingdom, which includes the Levant to ten independent entities, five of which united to form the present Syria, first through the Syrian Union in 1922 announced by France to alleviate criticism of its policy It was replaced in 1925 with the Syrian state, the same year that saw the outbreak of the Great Syrian Revolution that lasted until 1927.In the following year, as an indirect result of the revolution, elections were held for the Constitutional Assembly that drafted the constitution of the republic in 1930, and in 1932 elected Muhammad Ali al-Abed as the first president. To the public Yeh. Subsequent years of struggle against the Mandate included the Sixteen Strike, the 1936 Treaty, the arrival of the National Bloc headed by Hashem al-Atassi, the 1939 protests after the Iskenderun Brigade, and the 1941 protests against the economic crisis that erupted during Bahij al-Khatib's reign during World War II, in which the Allies gained control. After the Battle of Damascus in 1941, it was once a Vichy government; the Allies proclaimed Syria's independence, and organized the 1943 elections that elected Shukri al-Quwatli as president. After the end of World War II, the independence uprising, which led to the country's full independence in 1946, broke out.
The defeat in the 1948 war and the 1948 protests led to a crisis in the newly independent political system, a series of military coups began, starting with the coup of Hosni al-Zaim, three months later Sami al-Hinnawi's coup, and then the first Shishakli coup following the preparation for integration with the Kingdom of Iraq within the Fertile Crescent unity project. In 1950, a new constitution, called the "Constitution of Independence," was written, and the second Shishkli coup in 1951 led to his unilateral takeover until he was ousted by the 1953 protests and the 1954 coup. The subsequent period until 1958, known as the spring of democracy, was characterized by poor relations with Turkey, and rising influence Nazareth who and He reached his climax with the proclamation of the United Arab Republic with Egypt in 1958 under pressure from army officers, and himself and as a result of the "errors of unity" declared disengagement with a coup in 1961; after secession organized elections in 1961 and elected Nazim al-Qadasi as president.
Second Republic
1963 coup d'état Baathist army troops overthrew the government on March 8, which led to the abolition of the constitution, the dissolution of the executive, legislative and judicial authorities, the exile of the majority of the political class out of the country, as well as the declaration of a state of emergency. The subsequent years were characterized by the conflict within the various wings of the Baath, which led to two other coups, the coup of 1966 and the second is the corrective movement in 1970, which brought the Minister of Defense Hafez al-Assad to power, and the coup during which the loss of the Golan during the 1967 war. Kenitra. In 1973, a new constitution was adopted for the country, which enshrined the one-party system as the Ba'ath leader of the state and society. In 1975, Syria intervened militarily in Lebanon during the Lebanese civil war and continued to exist until 2005. In 1979, an uprising led by the Muslim Brotherhood developed into military confrontations that ended in 1982. The country also suffered from an economic crisis and a market recession between 1985 and 1990. In 1991, Syria participated in the Madrid Conference, which accepted peace with Israel in return for the return of the Golan, and gradually began to abandon socialist principles towards the open market. Especially after taking over Bashar al-Assad to the presidency in 2000, succeeding his father with a constitutional amendment. However, with the exception of the short period known as the "Damascus Spring" in terms of political and media freedoms, the activity of parties, civil society, human rights and the domination of the security services, there has been little change in the one-party system.
In March 2011, protests broke out against the existing government as part of the Arab Spring, and soon expanded horizontally and vertically to most of the country's governorates.The government responded by repressing and shooting live demonstrators.International organizations accused the security forces and the Syrian army of human rights violations during the uprising. The dissatisfaction of the opposition forces with the emergence of armed movements of defectors from the regular army and civilian volunteers, such as the Free Syrian Army, resulted in the protests festering, turning into a civil war, battles involving heavy weapons, and the participation of foreign fighters and armies - such as Turkey and Hizb God, while the government approved a series of reforms, such as its tip 2012 constitution which abolished theoretically "the Baath leadership of the state and society." In light of the failure of diplomatic attempts to resolve them, and the lack of military resolution, the crisis since its outbreak led to the destruction of the infrastructure of a large number of Syrian cities, the emergence of the Syrian refugee crisis at home and abroad, the destruction of archaeological sites, and the near collapse of the economy, except the high numbers. Constantly for dead, wounded, disabled, detainees, abducted, and disappeared. The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights has documented the death and death of 210060 people since the start of the Syrian crisis on March 18, 2011, the date of the first deaths in Daraa province,As of 05/02/2015, they were distributed as follows: Civilian martyrs: 100973, including 10664 children, 6783 female over the age of eighteen, and 35827 fighters of the battalions and Islamic battalions, the dead of the combatants defectors: 2498.
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