Syria since its inception until now the second part
Syria is located in the southwestern part of Asia; Syria
overlooks the Mediterranean Sea and the coastline is 193 km long, the total border is 2253 km and is distributed between Turkey in the north and Iraq in the east and south, Jordan in the south, and from the west to the west. The Mediterranean Sea borders Syria and Israel, between latitudes 32-37.5 north of the equator, and longitudes 35.5-42 east of Greenwich, with an area of 185,000 square kilometers.
The topography of the country is diverse: in the south lies the Golan Heights and the fertile Houran fertile plateau, followed by Jabal al-Arab, which is composed mainly of basaltic rocks; to the north is the western mountain range of Lebanon on the border with Lebanon, which contains the highest point in the country, Mount Hermon or Hermon, from which fertile plains form Ghouta of Damascus, before turning into arid, barren mountainous lands in the Qalamoun and Nabek mountain range to the north of Damascus countryside; before it re-emerges in the Ghab plain and the plains of the Syrian coast, which is divided longitudinally by the Sahel mountain range from the Turkish border to Lebanon. . In the far north of Syria, Aleppo is located on a plateau surrounded by fertile plains with some mountains such as Mount Semaan; it meets with the fertile soil of the Euphrates valley extending to the Iraqi border; and in the far north-east is the island area, which gained its name from the many rivers present in it. It is also one of the country's most fertile areas. Between the Euphrates valley and the jungle plain is the desert, sandy and arid plain, interspersed with a few mountains like the Palmyra mountain range. In Syria, one island opposite Tartus is the island of Arwad, and a number of valleys such as Wadi al-Nasara and Wadi Barada.
There is agreement among the majority of researchers that until the twentieth century, the term Syria encompassed a wider area than it is today; In 1920, the Treaty of Sèvres between Turkey and France established the territory of the north of the Istanbul-Baghdad Railway as belonging to Turkey, an area composed of Kurds, Syrians, Armenians, and Arabs, with social and economic ties to Aleppo. In 1937, the Mandate separated the Iskenderun Brigade and granted it an independent rule. It was annexed by Turkey in 1939 under the pretext that its population is Turkish, although it does not exceed 40%. In September 1920, the four districts, the most important of which were Baalbek and the Bekaa, were separated from Damascus and annexed to the governorate of Mount Lebanon since 1860 to form the state of Greater Lebanon. In the same year, an investigation into the Sykes-Picot Agreement separated what was known as "South Syria" and granted Britain, in which the Emirate of East Jordan was established, to satisfy the Hashemites after King Faisal lost the rule of Damascus. Finally, after the defeat in 1967, Israel occupied the Golan. During the last century, many attempts were made to unite, most notably the King Abdullah I project on Greater Syria in 1947 and the People's Party for Unity with Iraq project in 1950.
The climate in Syria is classified in two large divisions, namely the Mediterranean climate in the coastal area and nearby areas, and dry in all other regions. The Mediterranean climate is characterized by hot and dry summers and cold winters and rainy with two transitional seasons, namely autumn and spring. By virtue of high location. Rainfall is usually between September and May each year; snow falls on the western highlands and precipitation is usually maximum in January, characterized by heterogeneity in the distribution of rain between the coast and inland, as well as the difference in annual rainfall on land, and can distinguish between three regions : Coastal areas with high rainfall, up to about 1200 mm / year; and inland areas adjacent to the coastal zone, where precipitation decreases to about 250 mm / year, rising to 550 mm / year in the northern and northeastern regions; 60% of the country, where the rate of God does not exceed 150 mm / year. With regard to humidity, the climate throughout Syria except coastal areas is characterized by high relative humidity during winter and low in summer; while for the coastal zone it is high relative humidity during summer due to the influence of the sea; the desert and semi-desert areas are the least humid. During the summer, the average humidity is 20-50% in the inland areas and 70-80% in the coastal areas, while in winter the rate ranges between 60-80% in the interior areas and 60-70% in the coastal areas. The winds are moderate, with the exception of the desert winds in Damascus and the Euphrates Valley areas in the summer.
Syria is rich in water resources, be it rivers, lakes or underground springs. The largest river passing through Syria is the Euphrates River, which enters Syria from Turkey and traverses its eastern region towards Iraq.The length of its course in the territory of the Republic is 675 km in addition to a number of basic tributaries, most notably the Balikh River with a length of 460 km and the River Khabour. The 50-kilometer Tigris River runs through Syria in the far north-east along the Iraqi border. The third Syrian river in terms of length is the Orontes River, which enters Syria from Lebanon for a length of 325 km and forms the main nerve of the agricultural areas in the Ghab plain. Al-Sharqiyah passes through Damascus and Ghouta before emptying into Al-Otaiba Lake in the desert, forming the water wallet of Damascus and its countryside. The south is the most important of the rivers of the Yarmouk River, which continues its way west, meeting the Jordan River before it flows into the Dead Sea. The country has built a large number of dams on the various rivers passing through the country, the most important of which is the Euphrates Dam, which forms an artificial lake with a capacity of 14.1 billion cubic meters of water;
Syria contains a number of natural and artificial lakes formed behind the dams, the largest of which is Lake Assad, the seven lakes near Latakia, Lake April 17 on the Afrin River and Lake Rastan on the Orontes River, which was established in 1960; the natural lakes in Syria, most notably Lake Qutina near Homs and Lake Zarzar near Zabadani, Lake Masada in the Golan, which is characterized by sulfur water.
The vegetation cover in Syria is varied in the central and western regions. Syria contains thirty nature reserves; the province of Latakia is the richest Syrian governorates in terms of forests and vegetation cover by 31% of the total forests of the Republic, followed by the plain of the forest by about 12%. There are about 3,500 species of plants and trees in Syria. As for animal cover, it is diverse, but a few animals living in Syria, such as the Syrian elephant or leopard, are completely extinct, and desertification plays an important role in the eradication of plant and animal diversity in Syria, threatening 18% of the total public space. The Syrian government is seeking to combat desertification through special plans.
The population of Syria, according to UN estimates in 2017, at the beginning of July about 18,270 million people with a negative population growth of -2.30%, while the birth rate was estimated at 18.9 births per thousand inhabitants compared to 5.4 births per 1,000 inhabitants as well; 56.1% of the total population in cities. Aleppo is the largest Syrian city, while Greater Damascus has the largest population, with 44% of the population living in both regions. The population has increased from 4.5 million in 1960 to 23.5 million (2010 estimates), due to improved living standards and health, while the fertility rate has declined from an average of 7 children per woman during the mid-20th century to 3 today, with This figure is above the global average of 2.1 children per woman; this rapid population growth has had a negative impact on the economy and development. In addition to the cities with a population of more than two million, namely Damascus and Aleppo, the cities with a population of more than one million or about to do so are Homs, Hama, and Latakia; The country suffers from the enlargement of major cities such as Damascus and Aleppo, supported by migration from the countryside to the city, which negatively affects development; Almost in the desert.
Since the nineteenth century, immigration from Syria to the new world, especially Latin America, has flourished, and the estimated number of people of Syrian origin is estimated at 12-15 million people.With the right to Syrian citizenship, most of them do not have it. The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), which has the lowest demographic impact on the country due to geographical proximity on the one hand, and non-naturalization in the Diaspora countries on the other. Since ancient times, Syria has been the home of numerous migrations, or alternate settlement such as Circassian migration in the nineteenth century, or military divisions and merchants who finally settled in the country such as Turkmen, Arnaout, and the most recent migrations are the migration of some clans from Najd to the Euphrates Valley in the late seventeenth century, Armenian immigration during World War I, Palestinian migration from Syria in the aftermath of the 1948 and 1967 wars, immigration from the Golan Heights after the 1967 war, and Iraqi immigration after the 2003 invasion.
The Syrian people are made up of seven different ethnicities, nine denominations as one, and 19 denominations as separate denominations. The constitution provides for equal rights and duties among all Syrians. At the level of religion, Islam according to the doctrines of the Sunnis and the group, especially the Hanafi doctrine is the most prevalent among Syrians by about 74%, and the Constitution provides that the main religion of the State and Hanafi jurisprudence is a major source of legislation, and the Constitution guarantees the various other sects in their personal status laws. It guarantees religious freedom, although restricted in some respects, according to the report "Religious Freedom in the World." The state oversees the Islamic religious sector through the Ministry of Awqaf. At the level of ethnic groups, after the Arabization, the Arabs became the mainstay of the population in the country by about 86%. Syria is characterized by a high proportion of "minorities" in certain areas and make up the majority in them, such as the Syrian coast and the western-assi-valley, which is predominantly Alawite, the Syrian island with the Kurdish-Syriac predominance, and Jabal al-Arab with the Druze majority.
Before the Arabization until the eleventh or twelfth century for most of the Syrian countryside, Syriac was the language of daily communication in the country, which is considered by the scholars as the language of the national region. With the spread of Arabic as a spoken language, the Syrian dialect arose, which quoted that in terms of vocabulary or melody, especially on the island of the Syriac language abundantly with subsequent limited Turkish and French influences, the Syrian dialect is divided into several distinct branches in terms of pronunciation of some letter exits; With the Najdi dialect among the Bedouin. Ethnic groups use their mother tongues alongside the Syrian dialect, such as Kurdish, Syriac, Armenian, Circassian and Turkish in their daily dealings, and Aramaic in Maaloula. Officially, Arabic is the official language of the country, and the curriculum imposes English and French. Syria is one of the few countries mandated by France and French has not been established due to government policy, especially after 1963. Non-Arabic speaking groups have the right to establish schools or media outlets. In their own languages, after stopping the policy of Arabization and Arabization.
Syria's current constitution was promulgated on February 27, 2012, and stipulates that the system of government is a presidential republic. The President of the Republic may issue legislation that deals with the treatment of the law outside the times of the People's Assembly, provided that the latter is entitled to review it. The Supreme Constitutional Court shall supervise the entire legislative process in the country and shall try the President. The President of the Republic is elected for seven years, by the people.
The ruling party in Syria is the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party and is formed with eight other parties, all leftist, a coalition called the National Progressive Front and has two-thirds of the seats in the parliament. The political system in the country. According to Human Rights Watch, Syria ranks 154th in terms of respect for human rights, due to restrictions on the establishment of political parties, censorship of political publications, the Internet, and various means of communication, as well as the death penalty, the worsening of prison conditions, torture, and other human rights violations. .
Since Syria is a central government, local authorities in the governorates are limited to implementing government decisions and directives, exercising self-control over this implementation, managing some public services such as hygiene, managing gardens, and drawing up organizational plans for cities in the governorate. The country is composed of 14 governorates, each governor appointed by the President of the Republic, the provinces are divided into 60 districts, and districts are divided into 280 districts. In addition to the governor, each governorate is elected by a provincial council, and in every city, a city council regulates its affairs and powers through the Local Administration Law, the latest version of which was issued in 2011. The province of Tartous was established, to be the newest Syrian province.
Foreign affairs
Syria plays an important role in the regional politics of the Arab world, especially the neighboring countries. The phrase "no war without Egypt, no peace without Syria" illustrates the country's role in the Arab-Israeli conflict. In any case, direct, indirect, and time-lapse negotiations stalled in 2008 with no result. According to the constitution, Syria is working to achieve cooperation among Arab countries in all fields, in order to achieve "Arab unity". After the Baath Party took power in 1963, it has forged a strategic alliance with Russia and Iran since the Islamic Republic's establishment in 1979. In contrast, the Friends of Syria group, which includes countries such as the United States, Britain and Saudi Arabia, provides diplomatic and material support. To the opposition since the crisis.
Outside the current crisis, Syria has close ties with Iraq, Lebanon, and Turkey, particularly its southern region, and some Palestinian movements. At the international level, the country is a founding member of the United Nations, twice elected as a member of the UN Security Council, a founding member of the Arab League and a member of the Arab League. Member of the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, International Atomic Energy Agency, International Civil Aviation Organization, Food and Agriculture Organization, Group of 24, Group 77 and Non-Aligned Movement (G) Arab League organizations such as the Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development, the Greater Arab Free Trade Area, and others.
The Syrian armed forces, consisting of the Syrian Army, the Syrian Air Force, and the Navy. The President of the Republic of Syria is the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces in accordance with the Constitution and conferred with the Supreme Defense Council, while the Syrian Ministry of Defense administers the regular administration. The Syrian army was established after independence in 1946 from the womb of the Eastern Army during the Mandate days. The Egyptian army at the Arab level, with a mandatory military service of one and a half years. However, after the militarization of the Syrian crisis, and as a result of the deaths of battles and defections, the number of the army decreased to about 220,000 fighters. The Syrian army, both in terms of organization and armament, depends on the Russian style.
The Syrian army participated in the 1948 war, the 1967 war, the 1973 war, the Lebanese civil war, in particular the 1982 Lebanon war, the 1990 operation against the government of Michel Aoun, and the second Gulf war, suppressed the events of the 1980s, and intervened in the Syrian crisis. After the crisis, the armed forces are no longer considered the only military institution in the country. The National Defense Army, the Free Syrian Army, and several independent factions and organizations emerged and took control of different areas during the crisis.
Syria's growing economy has mainly declined dramatically as a result of the Syrian crisis, shrinking by 20% in 2013, with widespread destruction of the necessary infrastructure, poverty to more than 50% of the population, and unemployment reaching 39%, with large numbers of unemployed. Young people, fresh graduates, and those with lesser fields of study, these are the worst in the world for Southern Sudan. In addition, the collapse of the national currency, the Syrian pound, to lose between 2012 and 2013 about 200% of its value, with inflationary results and low purchasing power of the citizen. Some optimistic reports talked about the possibility of an "accelerated recovery" of the economy, after the war stopped and began to focus on the economic side, due to previous economic experiences, for example in 1970 Syria's GDP was $ 136 million, and rose to $ 1.024 billion in 1980 Multiplied tenfold in ten years. Since 1963, the Syrian state has moved towards a fully-oriented socialist economy policy and, after 2000, began to reform the economy and move towards an open market economy, achieving high economic growth rates, and improving income while remaining below neighboring countries; for example, nominal GDP The country was $ 46.5 billion, a figure close to Lebanon's nominal GDP of $ 42.5 billion, although Syria is eighteen times larger in terms of area, nearly five times more populous and richer in natural resources, mainly because of Socialist policies in Syria, And Lebanon's adoption of an open market system. Syria suffers from high rates of corruption, and the country is considered one of the ten most corrupt countries in the world, and the economy suffers from the inability to create new jobs to suit the size of the labor market increase estimated at 200 thousand new workers annually, a total of about 7.5 million workers in 2012, which is As a result, high rates of immigration among university youth towards the countries of the world, especially the Gulf countries, also have a large economic and service disparity between the major cities such as Damascus, Aleppo, Homs, Latakia, and between the countryside like Atareb or Taftanaz. In a 2011 survey, only 4.7% of Syrians expressed “satisfaction” with life.
Traditionally, Syria is an agricultural country, with agriculture accounting for 26% of the national income. The 13th cotton production in 2010, before the Civil War, according to the National Cotton Council of America. However, due to the civil war and its damage to the economy and agriculture, Syrian cotton production has dropped significantly. Other crops include wheat and fruit trees, which provide food security for all basic foodstuffs and export some of them. Farming coincides with animal husbandry, the most important cattle are about 1.2 million heads, sheep about 2 million heads, chickens around 120 million chickens, fish producing 17,000 tons per year, and secondary beekeepers, and animal products are also self-sufficient and exported abroad.
Industry and Tourism
Industry in Syria is still considered developing and confined to 12.5% of the workforce, with 85% of the industrial establishments being small and employing less than ten workers, and in 2000 only 2.3% of the estimated 90,000 industrial establishments employ more than 100 workers. The industrial sector is limited to medium industries, such as food industries, textiles, and some heavy industries, such as cement, fertilizers, oil refining, construction materials and electricity production, with a single factory for the automotive industry; while the country imports most of its industrial and electronic needs. Trade and services make up 42% of GDP and 39% of the workforce are concentrated in major cities, including banking, transit, Damascus stock exchange, Damascus International Fair, and tourism services, which also provide 31% of foreign exchange reserves. In 2010, the number of tourists in Syria reached 6 million tourists without domestic tourism and visiting Syrians abroad, with an average annual investment of 6 billion dollars, and classified Syria as one of the best tourist sites in the world, with low cost of tourism compared to neighboring countries, and its rich natural and archaeological, But the crisis has led to the disappearance of tourism from the country.
In terms of natural resources, Syria is the 27th country in the world with oil production of 400,000 barrels per day, consumed locally, and part of it is exported abroad to re-import its derivatives; besides the wells in Hasakeh and Deir Ezzor, large quantities of oil and gas have been discovered in the sea off the coast Syrian. The second wealth, natural gas, is used for domestic consumption, and the production of 28 billion cubic liters per year, and the third phosphate in Homs, producing 2.6 million tons, most of which is exported, and is the ninth in the world production. In terms of energy production, since 2002 Syria has achieved self-sufficiency in electricity needs by 21.6 billion kWh.However, the crisis led to a decline in the capacity to produce energy in large quantities.On average, the Syrian cities cut off electricity between 6-9 hours a day, even in Cities that do not witness battles such as Damascus and Latakia.
Foreign Trade
In 2010, the value of Syrian exports amounted to 10.5 billion dollars, more than 50% of which were with Arab countries, especially Iraq and Saudi Arabia, and about 30% with EU countries. The rest are distributed among China, South Korea, the United States and Turkey. Syria has free trade agreements with Iraq, Turkey, and Iran, negotiations for the European Partnership that were suspended as a result of the crisis, and sanctions since 2001 by the United States as well as sanctions on trade as a result of the crisis; external debt is $ 7.7 billion owned by Russia, most of which was written off in January 2005. .
The Constitution stipulates that education is a right of every citizen and is compulsory in basic education and free at all levels. In addition to state-run schools through the Ministry of Education, the private sector is also investing in education, with mandatory curriculum materials issued by the Ministry. The next university education in Syria is divided into two phases: basic education from 6 to 15 years and consists of two rings, and secondary education from 15 to 18 years, and includes three branches are scientific, literary and forensic, and seven professional branches are industrial, agricultural, commercial, tourism, information and technical, The student ends with a high school diploma, which qualifies him according to his average and based on a trade-off issued by the Ministry of Higher Education his final competence in universities. Most Syrians tend to study at state universities, the oldest of which is Damascus University. In 1972, the state enacted a law to eradicate illiteracy, but it did not succeed in its implementation. A large number of cultural festivals and book fairs are held annually in the country, most notably the "Damascus Book Fair". The government runs a number of libraries and reading rooms. The cities also contain provincial and district centers on cultural houses and theaters run by the Ministry of Culture, and contain small public libraries, and organized through festivals and other cultural days.
Investment in the health sector, in which the state intervenes with the private sector. The government manages 85 hospitals in the republic, most of which are highly specialized and some 800 health clinics in rural areas. In addition to these hospitals belonging to the Ministry of Health, 12 university hospitals under the Ministry of Higher Education and 18 military hospitals under the Ministry of Defense. The number of private hospitals reached about 400 in 2008 and covers about 25% of the total health sector. The government deducts part of the salaries of public sector employees, such as health insurance in its health facilities, and the laws in force state that private sector companies must also register their workers in health and social insurance, whether in public or private sector institutions. The average age of Syrian citizens is 74 years, which is comparable to other countries in the region. As for the pharmaceutical industry, there are 65 pharmaceutical factories, most of which are concentrated in the countryside of Damascus and Aleppo. Syria occupies the second place in the Arab world in terms of the pharmaceutical industry and exports to the countries abroad. .
Many elements of traditional Syrian culture are made up of overlapping accumulations of cultures that have spread in the country since Aramaic Syria. Traditional Syrian culture has either disappeared or declined significantly, or has taken on new forms with the development of the times since the second half of the twentieth century. This includes, to varying degrees, the presence of a storyteller, a croquette, a sympathetic sham, a sword and cog dance, popular proverbs, zajal, two cars, traditional café smoking, shisha smoking, heavenly councils, and celebrations held on special occasions such as birth or circumcision, and the control of family values.
The traditional calligraphy of Syrian architecture includes the style of Arab houses, which combine the space of the place, natural light, greenery, and abundance of water element, with a lot of decoration and inlays in furniture; Northern Aleppo. Since the end of the 19th century, modern forms of architecture such as residential towers have spread, gradually replacing traditional building styles; just like fashion, with the exception of some northern and eastern rural areas, traditional costumes - consisting of trousers with a shirt and vest, or robes in some areas , With a turban or cowl on the head for males, a long dark cloak for ladies, bright for girls, and often decorated with earrings and embroidered with a scarf that blindfolds the head, for females - gradually replaced by modern fashion as pants for men Discriminate and others. In addition to traditional patterns of painting, grafting, and sculpture, contemporary schools of this and other arts are common.
Traditional styles of music and songs, mainly known as Aleppo cods, are still widespread and, in particular, the most famous Syrian singer is Sabah Fakhri. Modern styles of contemporary music by local or Arab artists are also prevalent, and a number of artists have achieved success throughout the Arab world, such as Asala Nasri and Nassif Zeitoun; the country also contains the Syrian Orchestra. Traditional dance styles such as dabke, grace, and belly dance are still common alongside modern dance styles, especially in major cities. The Syrian cuisine reflects the diversity and richness of the country's agricultural crops. The most famous types of Syrian authorities, while the desserts Shami, which is called the name of the Arab sweet, with the influence of Turkish cuisine. Since the founding of the Syrian Football Federation in 1936, football is the most popular sport in the country, and organizes the Syrian Football League annually, with a limited spread of other sports such as swimming, equestrian, tennis, basketball, and the Discover Syria Rally. The best results achieved by the Syrian imposition are Al Karama Club and the 2006 Asian Champions runners, and the 2010 AFC Asian Cup winner Al Ittihad. Syrian athletes in the Olympic Games have won medals at the medal rate in each tournament; the country organized a number of important regional sporting events, such as The Mediterranean in 1987 and the Arab Games in 1992. The festivals and annual events celebrated in Syria are based on religious occasions for various groups; the celebration of major holidays such as Eid al-Fitr, an increase in the activity of markets, visits to graves, relatives and friends, as well as Flat or move out of the cities for walks. The Syrian state recognizes a list of 27 religious and national occasions and considers them public holidays. The official holiday is on Friday and Saturday. National events such as Martyrs' Day and Eid Al-Jalaa, the Syrian National Day; a number of festivals and exhibitions are also held annually in various regions and cities.
In order to highlight and preserve Syrian cultural heritage, the country has a number of museums, the most important of which are the National Museum of Damascus, as well as specialized and smaller museums; there are many Syrian artifacts on display in international museums such as the Louvre Museum; and with Syria being rich in historical and archaeological areas - 7000 to 10,000 sites Archaeological - only 18 sites on the World Heritage List; Syrian antiquities smuggled abroad during the crisis have been estimated at $ 2 billion, according to some sources.
Damascus was chosen in 2008 as the capital of Arab culture; Aleppo was chosen in 2006 as the capital of Islamic culture.
Founded in 1871 by Abu Khalil al-Qabbani, the Syrian Theater is the first contemporary Arab theater. The Syrian television drama is the first field of media arts fame, and according to the opinion of a number of critics considered the best Arab, and some of the pillars have been able to reach global. Syrian Radio was founded in 1946, and Syrian Television in 1959, and since 2004 opened the door to investment with radio and television channels, and was previously a monopoly on the state, which prompted the establishment of a number of them, whether their centers inside or outside the country, and the majority of Syrians follow the non-Syrian Arab channels more From the Syrian ones. The Syrian press was founded in Aleppo in 1854, and played an influential role in the cultural and social life during the nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth century, and monopolized by the state between 1963 - 2004, and currently publishes in the country a number of various private and government newspapers, with wide criticism about Freedom of the press in Syria. It is noteworthy that 20% of Syrians use the Internet periodically according to the list of Internet usage periodically.
Literature
Literature in Syria, poetry, texts, or travel literature, is part of the Arab literature in general, and is born in the Syrian cities or those who spent a part of their lives where Albtahri, Abu Tammam, and Mutanabi, as the most distinguished trio of antiquity, along with others such as Dick Jinn , And Al-Akhtal. In the modern stage, a number of Syrian writers have emerged on the level of Arabic literature, and their work has been translated into different languages, including: Nizar Qabbani, Adonis, Mohammed Almagout, Zakaria Tamer, Colette Khoury, Saadallah Wannous, and Hanna Minneh. In terms of philosophy, philosophers of different orientations emerged from Syria, influencing to varying degrees in their surroundings and the world.Perhaps the most famous of St. Antoine Syria, Al-Farabi and Abu Ala Al-Maari from the Middle Ages, Francis Marash and Rizkallah Hassoun from the Arab Renaissance. The country has the first Arabic language complex in the world, and Muhammad Kurd Ali was his first president
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